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The Formation of Dublin During the Viking Age: 837-1170 AD

March 17, 2021

The Irish Viking Age is agreed to have begun c. 795 AD with a raid on Rathlin Island, off the Antrim Coast. The year it ended is signified by the arrival of the Anglo-Normans in 1170 AD.

From the time the Vikings first arrived in Dublin, ownership continued to switch hands; being reclaimed by the Irish, only to be taken over by the Vikings several years later. Most of this evidence is taken from the Irish annals. These chronicles would have been written over the centuries by Irish monks and date back as far as 431 AD.

Unfortunately, no surviving Norse literature has been found in Dublin but, recent excavations have provided a greater understanding of everyday life at the time.

This piece discusses the history of Viking Dublin from the time it was established, up until the invasion of the Anglo-Normans. Rather than just focusing on what is written in the annals, it mentions some of the recent archaeological discoveries and what they can tell us about life during this time.  

Early Viking Dublin (837-902 AD)

With the creation of the impressive longship, the Vikings travelled from Scandinavia, attacking parts of western and eastern Europe. When they first came to Ireland c.795 AD, they focused on the raiding of coastal locations. Situated on the eastern coast, Dublin Bay was a sheltered site for Vikings to moor their ships.

They first attacked Dublin in 837 AD. When they landed, there were already two small sites that were home to settlers. Áth Cliath and Duibhlinn lay on the south side of the River Liffey, and are mentioned in the Annals of Ulster, dating between the seventh and eighth centuries.

The same year that the first fleet of Viking ships arrived on the River Liffey in Dublin, another fleet appeared north of Dublin on the River Boyne, Co. Meath.

The River Boyne, Co. Meath passing over the River Liffey in Dublin.

The annals state that a longphort, or naval fort was established in Dublin in 841 AD. This was the first year that the Vikings were able to remain in Ireland throughout the winter, resulting in a growing number of raids. Each summer, it seems that more bands of Vikings arrived and settled in Dublin, making it the primary Viking colony in Ireland.

The inhabitants living in between the Boyne and the Liffey worried about the growth of these Viking settlements and the effect it could have on the rich agricultural land in between.

The Irish kings of Brega and Leinster, where these two rivers were situated, formed an alliance against the Vikings. In 902 AD, it seems they managed to force them out of Dublin.

The Annals of Ulster state:

The heathens were driven from Ireland, i.e. from the fortress of Áth Cliath [Dublin]…and they abandoned a good number of their ships and escaped half dead after they had been wounded and broken. (The Annals of Ulster, 902. 2)[1]

Later Viking Dublin (917-980 AD)

In 917 AD, Dublin was recaptured and taken over by the Vikings, under the rule of Sitriuc Cáech, who already held control of the kingdoms of York and Northumbria in England. The connection between Dublin and these other locations had a positive impact on Irish trade and urbanisation, turning it into a profitable trading centre.

During this time, inland raids on horseback were becoming more common and the areas of inland Leinster and Meath were targeted. The current kings of Leinster, Meath and Brega heavily resisted these attacks, defeating the Vikings in many of the military engagements recorded during this period.

The Irish went on to make direct attacks on the Viking settlement in Dublin. In 944 AD, Dublin was first referred to as a dún, in the annals. Another name for a ‘fortified settlement’, this indicates an increased need for protection. 

Dublin remained a profitable trading centre. However, in 952 AD the reigning King of York and Dublin Oláfr Cúarán was driven out of York, severing connections with Dublin.

Hiberno-Norse Dublin (980-1170 AD)

Between 980 and 1014 AD there were two rival Irish kings who took part in three famous wars against the Vikings, mentioned in detail in the Irish annals.

Máel Sechnaill mac Domnaill (of the Uí Néill clan) was King of Meath before he was named high king of Ireland in 980 AD. In the same year, he was attacked near the Hill of Tara, Co. Meath by Oláfr Cúarán, leading to the Battle of Tara. Máel Sechnaill was victorious and travelled south towards Dublin, where he took control of the city and insisted on freeing Irish slaves.

There had been a long-standing feud between Máel Sechnaill and Brian Ború, King of Munster, for the position of high king. In 997 AD, they finally agreed on dividing control of Ireland between them. Dublin and Leinster were now under Ború’s control.

In 999 AD, Ború was attacked by an alliance between the Norse ruler of Dublin, Sitric Silkenbeard, and his uncle Máel Mórda, King of Leinster. Known as the Battle of Glenn Máma, this battle is mentioned in the Annals of Innisfallen. It took place close to the Dublin area, but the exact location has been disputed. Ború was victorious and headed to Dublin, regaining control of the area.

In 1014 AD, Silkenbeard and Máel Mórda revolted again, seizing control of Dublin. This led to the Battle of Clontarf. Ború was supported by both Irish and Viking forces from the province of Munster, as well as his former rival Máel Sechnaill. Although his troops were victorious, it seems Ború was too old to battle and was attacked in his tent and killed. Máel Sechnaill reclaimed the title of high king of Ireland in 1015 AD.

Although the Irish were victorious, the Vikings remained in Dublin and the rest of the country. They were no longer seen as a military threat and intermarriage was common.

Irish clans still fought amongst themselves and Vikings even hired out their armies for support. This went on until the arrival of the Anglo-Normans in 1170 AD, signalling the end of the Viking Age in Ireland.

Most of the information about these famous battles and how Dublin continued to change hands, is taken from the Irish annals.

It was not until the 1960s that important excavations began in Dublin. Some of the most valuable sites include Winetavern Street, Christchurch Place, Fishamble Street and Wood Quay. Of the 200 Viking buildings excavated by the National Museum between 1961 and 1981, 150 were situated on Wood Quay.[2]

Dublinia (left) is an interactive Viking & medieval history museum. The arch in the middle lies over the entrance into Winetavern Street, which leads down to Wood Quay. Christchurch Cathedral (right),

Some of the details these excavations have revealed about life at the time include:

Streets and Housing

By the mid-11th century, the estimated population of Dublin stood at approximately 4,500. With an estimated 900 houses in the city centre, it is assumed that each was home to around five people. The remains of post-and-wattle buildings have been found through excavation, set into individual, rectangular plots of land. It seems that buildings were often demolished and overlaid with new ones. On Fishamble Street, fourteen different overlaid building levels have been found, dating c. 917 to c.1070 AD.

By the end of the Hiberno-Norse period, Dublin was set into three primary areas. The eastern core seems to be the first settled area. There was also a western extension south of the river and a suburb on the northern riverbank. Many of the streets recognised in Dublin today developed organically during the time of the Vikings.

Graves

Since the late 18th century, over 77 Viking burials have been found in the Dublin area. Some of these were discovered by archaeologists before building projects began. Others were stumbled upon by ditch diggers. Large collections of artefacts have been found alongside many of these graves.

80% of Viking graves discovered in Ireland are positioned within 5km of Dublin city centre. The number of male vs female remains is 10:1 and little is known about female Vikings. Clothes and jewellery, such as brooches and pins worn by women have been found. There is little evidence of crosses or other markers on these graves.

Goods have been found in cemeteries such as Islandbridge and Kilmainham. At least fifteen males and two females have been found in Kilmainham, as well as a vast number of weapons. These include 42 double- and single-edged swords, as well as spearheads, and axe-heads. These impressive double-edged swords indicate that the people buried here were of high status.

Crafts

Luckily, the wet conditions of Ireland have helped to preserve pieces of wood, textiles and leather found in Dublin, providing a better understanding of Viking craftmanship.

Many of the artefacts would have been created by specialists, working in certain areas of the city. Gold and silver working were very important crafts, Other specialists included blacksmiths, comb makers, and those involved in specialised wood crafts, e.g. shipbuilding, housebuilding, barrel building.

Comb-making seems to have been popular around High Street and Christchurch Place. These specialists made combs from naturally shed red deer antler, collected during the spring. Some of the artefacts discovered include sawn off antler bases, tines and waste material.

There also seem to have been leather workers on High Street. Although few of the tools involved have been discovered lots of leather pieces such as shoes, bags and scabbards were found during excavation.

Although no Viking ships made by wood specialists have been found, wooden artefacts on display at the National Museum of Ireland include ships timbers, drawings of Viking ships sketched on planks, and toy ships.

One interesting discovery provided evidence of an amber workshop that was once present on Fishamble Street. Findings include large lumps of amber, as well as fragments of beads and pendants. This amber was imported from the Baltic Sea. Known as Gold of the North, Vikings held beliefs that amber contained magical powers and it was a highly valued material.

Trade

Many of the raw materials brought into Viking Dublin were grown in surrounding rural areas, including wheat, barley, oats and flax, used in linen-making. Materials brought in from the countryside included metal, leather, animal bone and deer antler, used to make combs. These materials were not just used by local craftsmen but often exported to other countries.

Evidence shows that by the mid-10th century, Dublin was primarily a market town involved in goods manufacturing and had become the industrial centre of the country.

By the late 12th century, Dublin was considered home to the richest port in western Europe. ‘Lead weights’ were found during excavation. These were important tools involved in the trading of different materials. Some of the weights found in Scandinavian countries are decorated with Irish mountings, signifying international trade.

Many of these mountings were broken from objects such as crosses and shrines taken from Irish monasteries.  These forms of weights have been found at the grave sites of Islandbridge and Kilmainham.

Conclusion

The annals provide us with a clear description of the events that went on throughout the Viking era in Dublin and the rest of Ireland. As the annals were written by monks living in Irish monasteries that were often attacked by the Vikings, it is unfortunate that no Norse literature relating to this era has survived. Would there be problems with conflicting information and how would the Irish have been perceived by the Vikings?

Luckily, recent excavations have provided important facts about life during this period. Not just an insight into the daily way of life, but the trading industry, the kinds of weapons used and the status of the people living there. Many of the thousands of artefacts discovered are now on display at the National Museum of Ireland.

By Jenny Snook

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